Zoology

This story provides information about parrot habitat. This is seen when a parrot informs Thunder that his wife has been stolen. Thunder encounters the parrot in the pines atop a big rock along the Rio Quiguasca (San Juan River). This tells us that parrots can be found in pine trees along this river and, more generally, that they are arboreal and frequent riparian areas. The fact that this bird is the bringer of bad news suggests that parrots emit warning calls. The story thus may reference a cue that can be used to detect an approaching threat. The parrot’s utterance may also reference the ability of many psittacines to imitate human speech and other sounds.

The story also provides information about boa constrictor habitat, morphology, and diet. This is seen when Kiawa transforms himself into a boa. The story tells us that Kiawa’s home is on Rio Iya, indicating that boas are found near rivers. The description of Kiawa as a “powerful giant” indicates that boas are large and strong. Further evidence of this is seen when Kiawa swallows his wife whole, which indicates that boas are predators capable of killing an adult human. The story emphasizes the menacing nature of this animal by characterizing it as a “monster” made from the body of an “evil” spirit. The story thus warns listeners of a large, powerful predator that lives near water.

Physical Geography

The story notes that pine-covered rocks and low hills extend to the edge of the Quiguasca River. It also indicates that there are rocks along the upper Rio Iya, and implies that they look like the body of a giant boa constrictor cut into pieces. The story thus describes landmarks that can be used for identifying and navigating different rivers. The story further notes that the Quiguasca is part of the upper reaches of the Rio Grande, and the Rio Iya is a tributary of the Rio Tuma. Knowing the position of these rivers relative to one another is useful for navigation.

The many references to storms and rivers provide information about climate and its effects. The plot revolves around a clash between Thunder and Kiawa, who lives along the Iya River. During their battle, the combatants rise to the sky, “growing tall, in order to reach the clouds.” These references to thunder, clouds, and a fight in the sky between powerful giants suggest storm activity. The images of “bleeding rocks” and Thunder pressing Kiawa to the ground suggest flooding: heavy rain may cause the river to rise and flow over the rocks (i.e., the transformed body of Kiawa), “pressing” on them and making them appear as though they were “bleeding” water. The personification of these rocks as the transformed body of an “evil” spirit suggests that they are dangerous. The characterization of this spirit as a snake capable of swallowing humans whole indicates that this danger consists of being “swallowed” by the river. The story thus warns listeners to be wary of this stretch of the river during heavy rains.

The snake’s wavy shape and undulating locomotion echo the form and movement of lightning and water courses, reinforcing the relationship between rain, rivers, and danger. This metaphor is not unique to the Miskito: snakes are linked with rain and related phenomena (e.g., lightning, rainbows), water features (e.g., rivers, waterholes, waterfalls), and danger in many South American and Australian (Mountford 1956) cultures.

Photo by NOAA/AOML/Hurricane Research Division

Technology

The story mentions that Thunder was sent by God to instruct humans in various arts, and notes that Thunder kills Kiawa using a machete. This information indicates that a machete is an effective weapon for dealing with boa constrictors: the long blade allows the wielder to inflict damage while maintaining a safe distance. 

Boa constrictor

Miskito territory | Image by Gervaldez

The story references the Río Iya, which is a tributary of the Río Tuma, a prominent channel in Nicaragua. Rivers are vital for subsistence: aside from hunting trails, there are few land routes through the region. Hunters rely primarily on water travel to locate game. For this purpose, the Miskito make dugout canoes, known as “pitpan,” from mahogany trees. The long, streamlined profile of these boats makes them well-suited to navigating narrow water channels, which is essential to survival, as the Miskito depend heavily on fresh-water and ocean fishing for their subsistence. A wide range of fish species are utilized, as well as turtles and manatees.

Photo by Sam Farkas

Photo by Hrchenge

Photo by Claudio Giovenzana

Photo by Hrchenge

“The heaviest rains usually fall in June or July, accompanied by much thunder and lightning. The river now began to rise rapidly, and I could get no fish.”

—Wickham (1872:169)

Photo by Gabriel Tovar on Unsplash

The flooding caused by these thunderstorms poses other challenges as well. The “bleeding rocks” in the story are a reference to the waterfalls created by the influx of water brought on by the rains. At this time of year, the upper stretches of rivers can become unnavigable, as the water “rushes through the broken rocks and round the sharp bends with a dangerous velocity” (Bell 1862:245), often carrying boulders, trees, and other debris in its wake. By increasing the amount of surface area covered by water, flooding also increases the risk of encountering boas, which are commonly found along rivers and small bodies of water. Although they seldom attack humans except in self-defense, these carnivorous generalists can reach lengths of up to four meters and will eat anything they can manage to swallow. This story thus identifies an environmental cue—thunder–that warns of several imminent dangers: flooding, food shortages, hazardous river conditions, and boa constrictors. The Miskito and Sumu evidently kept track of flood levels: Wickham reports seeing notches cut into tree trunks at an improbable height, and was told by informants that they were made during a flood.

The parrot character may be an ecological cue as well: the bright plumage, flocking habit, and loud, distinctive vocalizations of these birds make them easy to detect. Furthermore, parrots are arboreal: they roost and forage in tree canopies, and most species nest in tree hollows. Additionally, as depicted in  the story, some Central American species, such as Amazona ochrocephala, are found in pine forests. According to Bell (1862), all of the birds in the Miskito and Sumu region lay their eggs in April and May, and raise their broods before the heavy storms of June and July. Thus, the presence of nesting parrots may be an obvious cue of the impending arrival of the rainy season.

Photo by Camille Couvez on Unsplash

Reports indicate that warfare was frequent between the Miskito, Sumu, and neighboring groups throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Bravery in combat and success in warfare were held in high esteem, and all men were expected to help defend their territory against invaders. To this end, Sumu men periodically gathered to conduct military training exercises. At these gatherings, young men were subjected to trials of endurance to develop pain tolerance. Attacks were carried out at night in order to take the enemy by surprise. On these raids, women and children were often taken as captives.